Crash Course Medical Sciences
For the MLA and Medical Exams
- 1st Edition - April 7, 2026
- Latest edition
- Authors: Georga Longhurst, Alisa Nicholson, Brian Wang, Joana G.C. Rodrigues, Daniel Sescu, Jack Plume, Suraiya Chowdhury, Jo Cooper
- Editors: Philip Xiu, David Gillott
- Language: English
Crash Course – your effective every-day study companion PLUS the perfect antidote for exam stress! Save time and be assured you have the essential information you need in one pla… Read more
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Description
Description
Crash Course – your effective every-day study companion PLUS the perfect antidote for exam stress! Save time and be assured you have the essential information you need in one place to excel on your course and achieve exam success.
A winning formula now for over 25 years, having sold over 1 million copies and translated in over 8 languages, each series volume has been fine-tuned and fully updated to make your life easier. Especially written by senior students or junior doctors/residents – those who understand what is essential for exam success – with all information thoroughly checked and quality assured by expert Faculty Advisers, the result is books that exactly meet your needs and you know you can trust.
Each chapter guides you succinctly through the full range of curriculum topics, integrating clinical considerations with the relevant basic science and avoiding unnecessary or confusing detail. Text boxes help you get to the hints, tips and key points you need fast! A fully revised self-assessment section matching the latest exam formats is included to check your understanding and aid exam preparation. The accompanying enhanced, downloadable eBook completes this invaluable learning package.
Series volumes have been honed to meet the requirements of today’s medical students, although the range of other health students and professionals who need rapid access to the essentials of medical sciences will also love the unique approach of Crash Course. Whether you need to get out of a fix or aim for a distinction Crash Course is for you!
This comprehensive medical sciences textbook provides an integrated approach to basic medical sciences, covering anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, and pathology for each body system. It offers succinct yet thorough coverage of all major physiological systems and pathological processes. Also covering foundational topics like biochemistry, cell biology, immunology, pharmacology and microbiology, it's packed with high-yield mnemonics, tables, and illustrations to enhance learning and retention. Ideal for healthcare and medical students, this resource seamlessly connects fundamental scientific principles with clinical applications, providing a solid foundation for understanding human health and disease.
Key features
Key features
- Prepare with confidence and cover curriculum essentials all in one place
- Updated self-assessment section matching the latest exam formats – confirm your understanding and improve exam technique fast
Readership
Readership
Medical students, junior doctors
Table of contents
Table of contents
Series editor foreword v
Preface vi
Series editor’s acknowledgement viii
Section 1: General principles 1
1 Biochemistry and cell biology 3
Genetics 3
Nucleotides 3
DNA 3
RNA 6
Features of the genetic code 6
Structure of genes 7
Transcription 8
Translation 8
Hardy–Weinberg genetics 10
The cell and extracellular compartment 12
Membranes and transport 12
Cellular organelles and function 15
Membrane receptors and signal transduction 16
Cytoskeleton 17
Connective tissue 17
Enzymes 24
Enzymes and biological energy 24
Enzyme kinetics 25
Metabolism 27
Amino acids 27
Carbohydrates 30
Proteins 31
Lipids 32
2 Immunology 33
Principles of immunology 33
Concepts of immunity 33
Anatomy of the immune system 33
Cells and molecules of the immune system 33
Inflammation 35
Tolerance 37
Pathology 37
Hypersensitivity 38
Immunodeficiency 39
Autoimmunity 42
HLA associations 42
3 Microbiology 43
Bacteria 43
Bacterial structures 43
Bacterial classification 43
Infections – Gram-negative bacteria 45
Infections – Gram-positive bacteria 50
Infections – Tuberculosis 51
Fungi 53
Infections – Fungi 53
Parasites 54
Infections – Malaria 54
Infections – Other protozoa 55
Infections – Helminths 56
Infections – Ectoparasites 57
Viruses 57
Infections – Human herpesvirus 58
Infections – Other DNA viruses 59
Infections – Hepatitis viruses 60
Infections – Human immunodeficiency
virus 61
Infections – Other RNA viruses 62
Infections – Prions 63
Antimicrobials 63
Antibiotics 64
Antifungals 66
Antiprotozoals 67
Other antiparasitics 68
Antiretrovirals 68
Other antivirals 69
4 Pharmacology 71
What is pharmacology? 71
Pharmacodynamics 71
Agonists 71
Antagonists 71
Pharmacokinetics 73
Drug absorption 73
Drug distribution 73
Drug metabolism 74
Drug excretion 76
Mathematic aspects of
pharmacokinetics 76
Toxicology 77
Section 2: Organ systems 81
5 Gastrointestinal 83
Embryology 83
Normal gastrointestinal embryology 83
Ventral wall defects 84
Congenital pancreatic defects 84
Anatomy 84
Oesophagus 84
Stomach 85
Pancreas 86
Liver and biliary system 86
Spleen 87
Small intestine 87
Large intestine 88
Rectum and anal canal 88
Femoral and inguinal regions 88
Histology 89
Gastrointestinal tract layers 89
Gastric histology 90
Intestinal histology 90
Physiology 90
Secretion 90
Summary of regulatory gastrointestinal
substances 94
Pathology 99
Oral 99
Oesophageal 99
Gastric 100
Intestinal 101
Liver 106
Gallbladder and biliary tract 109
Pancreas 110
Pharmacology 111
Acid suppressors and antacids 111
Antiemetics 112
Laxatives 112
Other gastrointestinal drugs 113
6 Cardiovascular 115
Embryology 115
Development of the heart 115
Development of the vasculature 116
Anatomy 120
Structure of the heart 120
Circulation 122
Innervation of the heart 122
Histology 122
Layers of the heart 122
Evolution of cellular changes in
myocardial infarction 124
Physiology 124
Heart muscle 124
Electrical excitation and conduction 126
The cardiac cycle 133
Vascular physiology 138
Control of the circulation 140
Pathology 143
Congenital heart disease 143
Hypertension 146
Hyperlipidemia 146
Atherosclerosis 146
Deep vein thrombosis 146
Nonthrombotic emboli 146
Peripheral vascular disease 146
Aortic aneurysm 149
Aortic dissection 149
Valvular disease 149
Coronary artery disease 149
Arrhythmia 150
Cardiomyopathies 163
Heart failure (HF) 163
Shock 164
Cardiac tamponade 166
Infective endocarditis 166
Rheumatic fever 166
Acute pericarditis 166
Myocarditis 166
Pharmacology 168
Antihypertensive drugs 168
Antianginal therapy 168
Statins 168
Orlistat 168
Antiarrhythmic drugs 168
Common drug-induced cardiovascular reactions 171
7 The endocrine system 173
Embryology 173
Pituitary gland development 173
Thyroid gland development 173
Anatomy 174
Hypothalamus 174
Pituitary gland 174
Thyroid gland 175
Adrenal gland 175
Histology 176
Adrenal gland 176
Thyroid gland 177
Pancreatic endocrine cells 177
Physiology 177
General principles 177
Hormone synthesis and actions 180
Calcium homeostasis 188
Appetite regulation 189
The stress response 189
Pathology 191
Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic
hormone secretion 191
Primary polydipsia and diabetes insipidus 191
Hypopituitarism 192
Hyperpituitarism 193
Cushing’s syndrome 193
Thyroid dysfunction 194
Thyroid cancer 196
Parathyroid dysfunction 197
Adrenocortical insufficiency 198
Hyperaldosteronism 200
Diabetes mellitus 200
Neuroendocrine tumours 204
Pharmacology 205
Hypoglycaemic medications 205
Corticosteroids 208
Thyroid medications 208
Hypothalamic/pituitary medications 209
Drug-induced endocrine reactions 209
8 Haematology and oncology 211
Embryology 211
Blood groups 211
Embryological haematopoiesis 211
Foetal erythrocytes and haemoglobin 211
Anatomy 212
The lymphatic system 212
Primary lymphoid tissues 212
Secondary lymphoid tissues 213
Histology 215
The constituents of blood 215
Bone marrow histology 216
Physiology 217
Haematopoiesis 217
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) 218
Blood products and transfusion 220
Haemostasis 220
Lymphoid system 224
Cell cycle 224
Mutations and DNA repair 226
Lab tests 227
Pathology 230
Anaemias 230
Coagulation disorders 231
Haematological malignancies 231
Multiple myeloma and related conditions 237
Transfusion reactions 239
Pharmacology 240
Coagulation 240
Cancer therapy 240
Drug-induced haematological reactions 242
9 Musculoskeletal, skin and connective tissue 245
Anatomy 245
Skeletal components 245
Joints 246
Connective tissue 246
Tendons and ligaments 248
Upper extremities 248
Lower extremities 250
Histology 257
Cellular composition of the bone 257
Skeletal muscle fibres 257
Dermatological histology 257
Hair follicle 259
Physiology 259
Motor neurone action potential 259
Skeletal muscle contraction 259
Vascular smooth muscle contraction
and relaxation 260
Muscle growth and repair 261
Bone development 261
Bone profile interpretation 262
Pathology 262
Overuse injuries of the elbow 262
Shoulder pathology 263
Wrist and hand pathology 264
Brachial plexus lesions 264
Knee pathology 265
Ankle fractures and sprains 266
Hip fractures 266
Common paediatric fractures 266
Childhood hip conditions 267
Abnormal spine curvature 267
Temporomandibular disorders 268
Compartment syndrome 268
Bone disease 268
Primary bone tumours 269
Rheumatological disease 269
Connective tissue disorders 274
Common dermatological pathology 275
Pharmacology 279
Paracetamol 279
Osteoporosis 279
Antiinflammatory medication 279
Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs 280
Immunosuppressant drugs 280
Biologics 280
Gout drugs 281
Drug-induced rheumatic effects 281
10 Neurology and special senses 283
Embryology 283
Neural tube development 283
Central and peripheral nervous system origins 283
Neural tube defects 283
Brain malformations 283
Anatomy 283
The central nervous system 283
Vasculature 292
Peripheral nervous system 293
The eye 296
The ear 297
Histology 300
Cellular composition of the nervous system 300
Physiology 301
The neuronal action potential 301
Synapses and neurotransmission 302
Neurotransmitters 303
The homunculus 304
The autonomic nervous system 304
The dopaminergic pathway 305
The direct and indirect pathways of the
basal ganglia 306
Clinical reflexes 309
Cerebral perfusion 309
The ventricular system 310
Vomiting centre 310
Higher cortical functions 310
The vestibular system 310
The physiology of sight 311
Physiology of smell and taste 312
Aqueous humour pathway 313
Pupillary control 313
Pathology 314
Ischaemic strokes and transient ischaemic attacks 314
Cerebral oedema 315
Intracranial haemorrhage 315
Aphasia 315
Seizures 316
Trigeminal neuralgia 317
Movement disorders 317
Neurodegenerative disorders 319
Delirium 319
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension 319
Botulism 319
Brain tumours 322
Otological pathology 324
Vertigo 324
Ophthalmological pathology 325
Pharmacology 328
Epilepsy therapy 328
Triptans 329
Parkinson disease therapy 329
Neurodegenerative disease therapy 330
Anaesthetics 330
Skeletal muscle relaxants 330
Opioid analgesics 330
Capsaicin 330
Glaucoma therapy 330
Common drug-induced neurological reactions 339
11 Renal 341
Embryology 341
Embryonic stages of the kidney 341
Development of the functional unit of the kidney 341
Congenital abnormalities of the kidney 342
Anatomy 343
Gross structure of the kidneys 343
The nephron 344
Renal vasculature 344
Nerve supply to the renal tract 345
Ureters 345
Bladder 345
Urethra 347
Histology 348
Glomerulus 348
Physiology 348
Fluid balance 348
Glomerular filtration 348
Nephron transport physiology 351
Acid-base balance 353
Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system 355
Electrolyte disturbances 356
Control of micturition 359
Casts in urine 362
Pathology 362
Renal tubular acidosis 362
Glomerular diseases 364
Kidney stones 364
Hydronephrosis 365
Benign prostatic hypertrophy 367
Prostate cancer 368
Urinary tract infections 369
Acute kidney injury 369
Acute interstitial nephritis 369
Acute tubular necrosis 370
Renal papillary necrosis 370
Renal cyst disorders 371
Renal cell carcinoma 371
Nephroblastoma 372
Renal failure 373
Pharmacology 374
Diuretics 374
Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors 375
Angiotensin receptor blockers 375
BPH medications 375
Nephrotoxic agents 375
Drug-induced renal reactions 376
12 Reproductive system 377
Embryology 377
Early embryonic development 377
Embryological derivatives 377
Placenta 377
Twinning 378
Genital embryology 379
Genetic mutations 381
Orofacial clefts 382
Anatomy 382
Bony pelvis 382
Male reproductive anatomy 384
Female reproductive anatomy 385
Gonadal supply and drainage 388
Histology 389
Female reproductive epithelial histology 389
Seminiferous tubules 390
Physiology 391
Gametogenesis 391
Follicular development and ovulation 391
The menstrual cycle 393
Hormone production and function 393
Pregnancy 393
Lactation 398
Menopause 399
Puberty and the Tanner stages of development 400
Diagnosing disorders by sex hormones 400
Diagnosing disorders by physical characteristics 400
Pathology 400
Female structural disease 400
Genitourinary trauma 401
Abnormal uterine bleeding 403
Pubertal disorders 403
Sex chromosome disorders 406
Aromatase deficiency 406
Androgen insensitivity syndrome 406
5-Alpha-reductase deficiency 406
Kallmann syndrome 407
Placental disorders 408
Uterine rupture 408
Postpartum haemorrhage 408
Ectopic pregnancy 408
Miscarriage 409
Hydatidiform mole 409
Hypertension in pregnancy 409
Vulval pathology 410
Cervical pathology 411
Primary ovarian insufficiency 413
Anovulation 413
Polycystic ovarian syndrome 413
Primary dysmenorrhoea 413
Ovarian cysts 414
Ovarian tumours 414
Uterine conditions 414
Breast pathology 416
Penile pathology 418
Testicular and scrotal pathology 418
Pharmacology 418
Contraceptives 418
HRT 418
Cancer treatment 421
Obstetric medications 421
Tocolytics 421
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues 421
Androgenic hormones 421
Antiandrogens 422
Teratogens 422
Substance use in pregnancy: teratogenic effects 422
13 Respiratory 425
Embryology 425
Lung development 425
Respiratory system changes at normal delivery 425
Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome 425
Histology 426
Cells of the conducting airways 426
Cells of the respiratory airways 426
Anatomy 426
Upper respiratory tract 426
Lower respiratory tract 428
Lungs 428
Diaphragm 429
Physiology 430
Lung volumes and capacities 430
Control of breathing 430
Metabolic control 431
Mechanics of breathing 433
Principles of gas exchange 435
Carriage of oxygen by the blood 436
Carriage of carbon dioxide by the blood 437
Hypoxia and hypoxaemia 438
Pulmonary circulation 438
Challenges to normal respiration 442
Lung defences against infection 443
Respiratory examination 445
Pathology 445
Infectious pathology 445
Cancer 446
Obstructive lung disease 446
Interstitial lung disease 448
Exposure-related pathology 448
Acute respiratory pathologies 450
Methaemoglobinaemia 450
Sleep apnoea 450
Pulmonary hypertension 452
Atelectasis 452
Pleural effusions 453
Respiratory failure 454
Type 1 (T1 Respiratory failure) 454
Type 2 (T2 Respiratory failure) 454
Pharmacology 455
Pulmonary hypertension drugs 455
Asthma drugs 455
Carbocysteine 456
Antihistamines 456
Pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine 456
Oxygen therapy 456
Self-assessment 457
Single best answer (SBA) questions 459
SBA answers 469
Acronyms and abbreviations 485
Glossary 487
Index 491
Preface vi
Series editor’s acknowledgement viii
Section 1: General principles 1
1 Biochemistry and cell biology 3
Genetics 3
Nucleotides 3
DNA 3
RNA 6
Features of the genetic code 6
Structure of genes 7
Transcription 8
Translation 8
Hardy–Weinberg genetics 10
The cell and extracellular compartment 12
Membranes and transport 12
Cellular organelles and function 15
Membrane receptors and signal transduction 16
Cytoskeleton 17
Connective tissue 17
Enzymes 24
Enzymes and biological energy 24
Enzyme kinetics 25
Metabolism 27
Amino acids 27
Carbohydrates 30
Proteins 31
Lipids 32
2 Immunology 33
Principles of immunology 33
Concepts of immunity 33
Anatomy of the immune system 33
Cells and molecules of the immune system 33
Inflammation 35
Tolerance 37
Pathology 37
Hypersensitivity 38
Immunodeficiency 39
Autoimmunity 42
HLA associations 42
3 Microbiology 43
Bacteria 43
Bacterial structures 43
Bacterial classification 43
Infections – Gram-negative bacteria 45
Infections – Gram-positive bacteria 50
Infections – Tuberculosis 51
Fungi 53
Infections – Fungi 53
Parasites 54
Infections – Malaria 54
Infections – Other protozoa 55
Infections – Helminths 56
Infections – Ectoparasites 57
Viruses 57
Infections – Human herpesvirus 58
Infections – Other DNA viruses 59
Infections – Hepatitis viruses 60
Infections – Human immunodeficiency
virus 61
Infections – Other RNA viruses 62
Infections – Prions 63
Antimicrobials 63
Antibiotics 64
Antifungals 66
Antiprotozoals 67
Other antiparasitics 68
Antiretrovirals 68
Other antivirals 69
4 Pharmacology 71
What is pharmacology? 71
Pharmacodynamics 71
Agonists 71
Antagonists 71
Pharmacokinetics 73
Drug absorption 73
Drug distribution 73
Drug metabolism 74
Drug excretion 76
Mathematic aspects of
pharmacokinetics 76
Toxicology 77
Section 2: Organ systems 81
5 Gastrointestinal 83
Embryology 83
Normal gastrointestinal embryology 83
Ventral wall defects 84
Congenital pancreatic defects 84
Anatomy 84
Oesophagus 84
Stomach 85
Pancreas 86
Liver and biliary system 86
Spleen 87
Small intestine 87
Large intestine 88
Rectum and anal canal 88
Femoral and inguinal regions 88
Histology 89
Gastrointestinal tract layers 89
Gastric histology 90
Intestinal histology 90
Physiology 90
Secretion 90
Summary of regulatory gastrointestinal
substances 94
Pathology 99
Oral 99
Oesophageal 99
Gastric 100
Intestinal 101
Liver 106
Gallbladder and biliary tract 109
Pancreas 110
Pharmacology 111
Acid suppressors and antacids 111
Antiemetics 112
Laxatives 112
Other gastrointestinal drugs 113
6 Cardiovascular 115
Embryology 115
Development of the heart 115
Development of the vasculature 116
Anatomy 120
Structure of the heart 120
Circulation 122
Innervation of the heart 122
Histology 122
Layers of the heart 122
Evolution of cellular changes in
myocardial infarction 124
Physiology 124
Heart muscle 124
Electrical excitation and conduction 126
The cardiac cycle 133
Vascular physiology 138
Control of the circulation 140
Pathology 143
Congenital heart disease 143
Hypertension 146
Hyperlipidemia 146
Atherosclerosis 146
Deep vein thrombosis 146
Nonthrombotic emboli 146
Peripheral vascular disease 146
Aortic aneurysm 149
Aortic dissection 149
Valvular disease 149
Coronary artery disease 149
Arrhythmia 150
Cardiomyopathies 163
Heart failure (HF) 163
Shock 164
Cardiac tamponade 166
Infective endocarditis 166
Rheumatic fever 166
Acute pericarditis 166
Myocarditis 166
Pharmacology 168
Antihypertensive drugs 168
Antianginal therapy 168
Statins 168
Orlistat 168
Antiarrhythmic drugs 168
Common drug-induced cardiovascular reactions 171
7 The endocrine system 173
Embryology 173
Pituitary gland development 173
Thyroid gland development 173
Anatomy 174
Hypothalamus 174
Pituitary gland 174
Thyroid gland 175
Adrenal gland 175
Histology 176
Adrenal gland 176
Thyroid gland 177
Pancreatic endocrine cells 177
Physiology 177
General principles 177
Hormone synthesis and actions 180
Calcium homeostasis 188
Appetite regulation 189
The stress response 189
Pathology 191
Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic
hormone secretion 191
Primary polydipsia and diabetes insipidus 191
Hypopituitarism 192
Hyperpituitarism 193
Cushing’s syndrome 193
Thyroid dysfunction 194
Thyroid cancer 196
Parathyroid dysfunction 197
Adrenocortical insufficiency 198
Hyperaldosteronism 200
Diabetes mellitus 200
Neuroendocrine tumours 204
Pharmacology 205
Hypoglycaemic medications 205
Corticosteroids 208
Thyroid medications 208
Hypothalamic/pituitary medications 209
Drug-induced endocrine reactions 209
8 Haematology and oncology 211
Embryology 211
Blood groups 211
Embryological haematopoiesis 211
Foetal erythrocytes and haemoglobin 211
Anatomy 212
The lymphatic system 212
Primary lymphoid tissues 212
Secondary lymphoid tissues 213
Histology 215
The constituents of blood 215
Bone marrow histology 216
Physiology 217
Haematopoiesis 217
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) 218
Blood products and transfusion 220
Haemostasis 220
Lymphoid system 224
Cell cycle 224
Mutations and DNA repair 226
Lab tests 227
Pathology 230
Anaemias 230
Coagulation disorders 231
Haematological malignancies 231
Multiple myeloma and related conditions 237
Transfusion reactions 239
Pharmacology 240
Coagulation 240
Cancer therapy 240
Drug-induced haematological reactions 242
9 Musculoskeletal, skin and connective tissue 245
Anatomy 245
Skeletal components 245
Joints 246
Connective tissue 246
Tendons and ligaments 248
Upper extremities 248
Lower extremities 250
Histology 257
Cellular composition of the bone 257
Skeletal muscle fibres 257
Dermatological histology 257
Hair follicle 259
Physiology 259
Motor neurone action potential 259
Skeletal muscle contraction 259
Vascular smooth muscle contraction
and relaxation 260
Muscle growth and repair 261
Bone development 261
Bone profile interpretation 262
Pathology 262
Overuse injuries of the elbow 262
Shoulder pathology 263
Wrist and hand pathology 264
Brachial plexus lesions 264
Knee pathology 265
Ankle fractures and sprains 266
Hip fractures 266
Common paediatric fractures 266
Childhood hip conditions 267
Abnormal spine curvature 267
Temporomandibular disorders 268
Compartment syndrome 268
Bone disease 268
Primary bone tumours 269
Rheumatological disease 269
Connective tissue disorders 274
Common dermatological pathology 275
Pharmacology 279
Paracetamol 279
Osteoporosis 279
Antiinflammatory medication 279
Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs 280
Immunosuppressant drugs 280
Biologics 280
Gout drugs 281
Drug-induced rheumatic effects 281
10 Neurology and special senses 283
Embryology 283
Neural tube development 283
Central and peripheral nervous system origins 283
Neural tube defects 283
Brain malformations 283
Anatomy 283
The central nervous system 283
Vasculature 292
Peripheral nervous system 293
The eye 296
The ear 297
Histology 300
Cellular composition of the nervous system 300
Physiology 301
The neuronal action potential 301
Synapses and neurotransmission 302
Neurotransmitters 303
The homunculus 304
The autonomic nervous system 304
The dopaminergic pathway 305
The direct and indirect pathways of the
basal ganglia 306
Clinical reflexes 309
Cerebral perfusion 309
The ventricular system 310
Vomiting centre 310
Higher cortical functions 310
The vestibular system 310
The physiology of sight 311
Physiology of smell and taste 312
Aqueous humour pathway 313
Pupillary control 313
Pathology 314
Ischaemic strokes and transient ischaemic attacks 314
Cerebral oedema 315
Intracranial haemorrhage 315
Aphasia 315
Seizures 316
Trigeminal neuralgia 317
Movement disorders 317
Neurodegenerative disorders 319
Delirium 319
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension 319
Botulism 319
Brain tumours 322
Otological pathology 324
Vertigo 324
Ophthalmological pathology 325
Pharmacology 328
Epilepsy therapy 328
Triptans 329
Parkinson disease therapy 329
Neurodegenerative disease therapy 330
Anaesthetics 330
Skeletal muscle relaxants 330
Opioid analgesics 330
Capsaicin 330
Glaucoma therapy 330
Common drug-induced neurological reactions 339
11 Renal 341
Embryology 341
Embryonic stages of the kidney 341
Development of the functional unit of the kidney 341
Congenital abnormalities of the kidney 342
Anatomy 343
Gross structure of the kidneys 343
The nephron 344
Renal vasculature 344
Nerve supply to the renal tract 345
Ureters 345
Bladder 345
Urethra 347
Histology 348
Glomerulus 348
Physiology 348
Fluid balance 348
Glomerular filtration 348
Nephron transport physiology 351
Acid-base balance 353
Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system 355
Electrolyte disturbances 356
Control of micturition 359
Casts in urine 362
Pathology 362
Renal tubular acidosis 362
Glomerular diseases 364
Kidney stones 364
Hydronephrosis 365
Benign prostatic hypertrophy 367
Prostate cancer 368
Urinary tract infections 369
Acute kidney injury 369
Acute interstitial nephritis 369
Acute tubular necrosis 370
Renal papillary necrosis 370
Renal cyst disorders 371
Renal cell carcinoma 371
Nephroblastoma 372
Renal failure 373
Pharmacology 374
Diuretics 374
Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors 375
Angiotensin receptor blockers 375
BPH medications 375
Nephrotoxic agents 375
Drug-induced renal reactions 376
12 Reproductive system 377
Embryology 377
Early embryonic development 377
Embryological derivatives 377
Placenta 377
Twinning 378
Genital embryology 379
Genetic mutations 381
Orofacial clefts 382
Anatomy 382
Bony pelvis 382
Male reproductive anatomy 384
Female reproductive anatomy 385
Gonadal supply and drainage 388
Histology 389
Female reproductive epithelial histology 389
Seminiferous tubules 390
Physiology 391
Gametogenesis 391
Follicular development and ovulation 391
The menstrual cycle 393
Hormone production and function 393
Pregnancy 393
Lactation 398
Menopause 399
Puberty and the Tanner stages of development 400
Diagnosing disorders by sex hormones 400
Diagnosing disorders by physical characteristics 400
Pathology 400
Female structural disease 400
Genitourinary trauma 401
Abnormal uterine bleeding 403
Pubertal disorders 403
Sex chromosome disorders 406
Aromatase deficiency 406
Androgen insensitivity syndrome 406
5-Alpha-reductase deficiency 406
Kallmann syndrome 407
Placental disorders 408
Uterine rupture 408
Postpartum haemorrhage 408
Ectopic pregnancy 408
Miscarriage 409
Hydatidiform mole 409
Hypertension in pregnancy 409
Vulval pathology 410
Cervical pathology 411
Primary ovarian insufficiency 413
Anovulation 413
Polycystic ovarian syndrome 413
Primary dysmenorrhoea 413
Ovarian cysts 414
Ovarian tumours 414
Uterine conditions 414
Breast pathology 416
Penile pathology 418
Testicular and scrotal pathology 418
Pharmacology 418
Contraceptives 418
HRT 418
Cancer treatment 421
Obstetric medications 421
Tocolytics 421
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues 421
Androgenic hormones 421
Antiandrogens 422
Teratogens 422
Substance use in pregnancy: teratogenic effects 422
13 Respiratory 425
Embryology 425
Lung development 425
Respiratory system changes at normal delivery 425
Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome 425
Histology 426
Cells of the conducting airways 426
Cells of the respiratory airways 426
Anatomy 426
Upper respiratory tract 426
Lower respiratory tract 428
Lungs 428
Diaphragm 429
Physiology 430
Lung volumes and capacities 430
Control of breathing 430
Metabolic control 431
Mechanics of breathing 433
Principles of gas exchange 435
Carriage of oxygen by the blood 436
Carriage of carbon dioxide by the blood 437
Hypoxia and hypoxaemia 438
Pulmonary circulation 438
Challenges to normal respiration 442
Lung defences against infection 443
Respiratory examination 445
Pathology 445
Infectious pathology 445
Cancer 446
Obstructive lung disease 446
Interstitial lung disease 448
Exposure-related pathology 448
Acute respiratory pathologies 450
Methaemoglobinaemia 450
Sleep apnoea 450
Pulmonary hypertension 452
Atelectasis 452
Pleural effusions 453
Respiratory failure 454
Type 1 (T1 Respiratory failure) 454
Type 2 (T2 Respiratory failure) 454
Pharmacology 455
Pulmonary hypertension drugs 455
Asthma drugs 455
Carbocysteine 456
Antihistamines 456
Pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine 456
Oxygen therapy 456
Self-assessment 457
Single best answer (SBA) questions 459
SBA answers 469
Acronyms and abbreviations 485
Glossary 487
Index 491
Product details
Product details
- Edition: 1
- Latest edition
- Published: July 1, 2026
- Language: English
About the editor
About the editor
PX
Philip Xiu
Philip Xiu a GP Registrar, Yorkshire Deanery, Leeds, UK.
Affiliations and expertise
Honorary Senior Lecturer Leeds University School of Medicine PCN Educational Lead Medical Examiner Leeds Teaching Hospital Trust Leeds, UKAbout the authors
About the authors
GL
Georga Longhurst
Affiliations and expertise
Head of Anatomy, St George’s, University of London, UKAN
Alisa Nicholson
Affiliations and expertise
St George's University of London and Sheffield Teaching Hospitals, UKBW
Brian Wang
Affiliations and expertise
Cardiology Clinical Fellow, Jersey General Hospital, JerseyJR
Joana G.C. Rodrigues
Affiliations and expertise
University of Edinburgh, UKDS
Daniel Sescu
Affiliations and expertise
School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, UKJP
Jack Plume
Affiliations and expertise
FY1 Doctor Haematology/Oncology, Peterborough City Hospital, North West Anglia NHS Foundation Trust, UKJC
Jo Cooper
Affiliations and expertise
Betsi Cadwaladr University Health Board