Effect of High-Pressure Technologies on Enzymes

1. Use of high-pressure technologies on enzymes
Isabela Soares Magalha˜es, Alline Artigiani Lima Tribst, and Bruno Ricardo de Castro Leite Ju´nior

1.1 Introduction

1.2 High-pressure processing

1.3 High-pressure homogenization

1.4 Enzymes

1.4.1 Changes induced in enzymes by high-pressure technologies

1.4.2 Effects of process parameters on enzyme activity

1.4.3 Effects of the food matrix/dilution system on enzyme activity

1.5 Enzyme reactions assisted by HPP

1.6 Challenges, future perspectives, and final remarks
References

2. Effects of high pressure on protein stability, structure, and function—Theory and applications
Lennie K.Y. Cheung, Andrew D. Sanders, Anubhav Pratap-Singh, Derek R. Dee, John H. Dupuis, Alberto Baldelli, and Rickey Y. Yada

2.1 Introduction

2.2 How does pressure modify proteins?

2.2.1 Simple models of proteins under pressure

2.2.2 Contributions of solvent-excluded volume (VvdW +Vvoid)

2.2.3 Contributions of hydration volume

2.2.4 Contributions of thermal volume

2.3 From two-state folding to energy landscapes

2.3.1 Stabilizing forces under pressure

2.3.2 Pressure-assisted exploration of the protein energy landscape

2.4 Pressure-induced configurational variety—Theory and applications

2.4.1 Native state stabilization

2.4.2 Pressure-induced intermediate, unfolded, and aggregate structures

2.5 Concluding remarks
References

3. Effect of high-pressure technologies on enzyme activity and stability
Ashutosh Kumar Hemker, Loc Thai Nguyen, and Deepti Salvi

3.1 Introduction

3.2 High-pressure processing and high-pressure homogenization technologies

3.2.1 High-pressure processing: Principle and operation

3.2.2 High-pressure homogenization: Principle and operation

3.3 Science of enzyme modification and catalytic activity under pressure

3.4 Effect of physical parameters on enzyme activity in solutions, food, and other matrices

3.4.1 Pressure

3.4.2 Time

3.4.3 Temperature

3.4.4 pH

3.5 Effect of physical parameters on enzyme stability in solutions, foods, and other matrices

3.5.1 Pressure

3.5.2 Time

3.5.3 Temperature

3.5.4 pH

3.6 Effect of high pressure on different enzymes

3.6.1 Fruit and vegetable enzymes

3.6.2 Cereal and legume enzymes

3.6.3 Milk enzymes

3.6.4 Meat enzymes

3.6.5 Microbial enzymes

3.7 Inactivation kinetics

3.8 Application of high-pressure-processed enzymes in food and nonfood applications

3.9 Conclusion
References

4. Effect of high-pressure processing on the kinetic parameters of enzymes
Somnath Basak and Snehasis Chakraborty

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Inactivation of enzymes by HPP

4.2.1 Primary kinetic model

4.2.2 Secondary kinetic model

4.3 Enhancement of enzyme activity by HPP

4.4 Conclusion
References

5. Strategies to improve enzyme performance: Effect of high pressure on the substrate and pressure-assisted reaction
Gustavo Polenta, Vanina Ambrosi, Luciana Costabel, Analı´a Colletti, Sergio Vaudagna, and Gabriela Denoya

5.1 Introduction

5.2 HPP-assisted hydrolysis of proteins

5.2.1 Effects of HPP + enzymatic hydrolysis on the potential allergenicity of food proteins

5.3 Effect of high-pressure treatment on plasmin and residual coagulant activity in cheese and its impact on primary proteolysis

5.4 Effect of HPP on reactions with carbohydrates as substrates

5.4.1 Effect of HPP on reactions involving pectins and other dietary fibers

5.4.2 Effect of HPP on reactions involving starch

5.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References

6. High-pressure processing associated with other technologies to change enzyme activity
Liliana G. Fidalgo, Silvia A. Moreira, Paula Ormando, Carlos A. Pinto, Rui P. Queiro´s, and Jorge A. Saraiva

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Combination of high-pressure technology and temperature

6.2.1 Oxidative enzymes

6.2.2 Pectic enzymes

6.2.3 Nonpectic and nonoxidative enzymes

6.3 Combination of high-pressure technology and additives

6.3.1 Physiological aging and enzyme changes

6.4 Combination of high-pressure technology and ultrasound/thermosonication

6.4.1 Enzyme modification

6.4.2 Enzyme inactivation

6.5 Carbon dioxide-assisted high-pressure processing

6.5.1 High-pressure processing conditions

6.5.2 Carbon dioxide level

6.5.3 Influence of the type of enzyme and the matrix

6.5.4 Shelf-life

6.6 Concluding remarks
References

7. Effects of high-pressure processing on enzyme activity in milk and dairy products
Luma Rossi Ribeiro, Isabela Soares Magalha˜es, Alline Artigiani Lima Tribst, and Bruno Ricardo de Castro Leite Ju´ nior

7.1 Introduction

7.2 High-pressure processing: Technology and milk processing

7.3 General effects of high pressure processing on enzymes

7.4 Effects of high-pressure processing on milk enzymes

7.4.1 Lactoperoxidase (LPO)

7.4.2 Xanthine oxidase (XO)

7.4.3 Lipase

7.4.4 Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and acid phosphatase (ACP)

7.4.5 γ-Glutamyl transferase (GGTP)

7.4.6 Phosphohexose isomerase (PHI)

7.4.7 Lysozyme

7.4.8 Plasmin

7.5 Effects of high-pressure processing on enzymes used for milk processing

7.5.1 Milk-clotting enzymes

7.5.2 Enzymes in cheese ripening

7.6 General assessment regarding high-pressure processing on enzymes in milk and dairy products

7.7 Challenges, future perspectives, and final remarks
References

8. Effects of high-pressure homogenization on enzyme activity in milk and dairy products
Essam Hebishy, Jessika Gonc¸alves dos Santos Aguilar, Luma Rossi Ribeiro, Genaro Gustavo Amador Espejo, and Antonio-Jose Trujillo

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Enzymology of milk and dairy products

8.3 Effects of HPH on the activity of milk enzymes (activation or inactivation)

8.4 Effects of HPH on milk enzymes: Functional and structural modifications to milk enzymes

8.4.1 Major enzymes

8.4.2 Minor enzymes (lysozyme)

8.4.3 Exogenous enzymes

8.5 Conclusions and future remarks
References

9. Effects of high-pressure processing on enzyme activity in meat, fish, and eggs
Karsten Olsen, Tomas Bolumar, Tone Mari Rode, and Vibeke Orlien

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Meat

9.2.1 Lipolytic enzymes

9.2.2 Proteolytic activities

9.3 Fish

9.3.1 Proteolytic enzymes

9.3.2 Oxidative spoilage

9.3.3 Nucleotide degradation

9.3.4 Trimethylamide oxidase demethylase

9.3.5 Phosphatase activity

9.4 Egg

9.5 Conclusion
References

10. Effect of high-pressure homogenization on enzyme activity in juices
Meliza L. Rojas, Mirian T.K. Kubo, Alline Artigiani Lima Tribst, Bruno Ricardo de Castro Leite Ju´nior, and Pedro E.D. Augusto

10.1 Introduction

10.2 High-pressure homogenization

10.3 Enzymes

10.4 High-pressure homogenization mechanisms involved in enzyme activity and stabilization

10.4.1 HPH to promote enzyme inactivation in juices

10.4.2 HPH to promote the increase in enzyme activity

10.4.3 HPH to modify the stability of enzymes

10.5 High-pressure homogenization effect on physical and chemical characteristics of juices

10.5.1 Effect on quality parameters and physical stability

10.5.2 Effect on rheology

10.5.3 Effect on phytochemical profile

10.6 Future challenges and final remarks
Acknowledgments
References

11. Effect of high-pressure processing on enzyme activity in roots, cereals, nuts, and their products
Lennie K.Y. Cheung, Andrew D. Sanders, Ronit Mandal, Derek R. Dee, Anubhav Pratap-Singh, and Rickey Y. Yada

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Roots

11.2.1 Alliums

11.2.2 Carrots and beetroots

11.2.3 Horseradish, radish, and ginger

11.2.4 Potato, sweet potato, and cocoyam

11.2.5 HPP combined with exogenous enzymes on roots

11.3 Cereals

11.3.1 Barley and wheat

11.3.2 Oats and rice

11.4 Nuts

11.5 Current outlook and future directions

11.6 Concluding remarks
References

12. Applications of high-hydrostatic-pressure processing on microbial enzymes
Yafei Liu, Sze Ying Leong, and Indrawati Oey

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Microbial enzymes applied in food and nonfood industries

12.2.1 Factors affecting the catalytic stability of microbial enzymes

12.2.2 Enzyme immobilization before high-hydrostatic-pressure processing (HPP)

12.3 Effects of high-hydrostatic-pressure processing (HPP) on enzyme stability and catalytic activity

12.3.1 Protein stability under pressure

12.3.2 Pressure-induced enzyme stabilization and catalytic activity enhancement

12.4 Effects of high-hydrostatic-pressure processing (HPP) on selected microbial enzymes

12.4.1 α-Amylase (EC 3.2.1.1)

12.4.2 Glucoamylase (EC 3.2.1.3)

12.4.3 β-Galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.23)

12.4.4 Cellulases

12.4.5 Xylanases

12.4.6 Pectinases

12.4.7 Lipase (EC 3.1.1.3)

12.4.8 Proteases

12.5 Conclusions and future perspectives
Acknowledgment
References

13. Applications of high-pressure homogenization to microbial enzymes
Jessika Gonc¸alves dos Santos Aguilar

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Microbial enzymes

13.2.1 General aspects

13.2.2 Production

13.2.3 Isolation and purification

13.2.4 Industrial uses

13.3 Basic principles of high-pressure homogenization

13.4 High-pressure homogenization of enzymes

13.4.1 High-pressure homogenization of protein structure

13.4.2 High-pressure homogenization of enzymatic reactions

13.5 Application of HPH to microbial enzymes

13.5.1 Amylases

13.5.2 Asparaginases

13.5.3 Glucose oxidase

13.5.4 Lactase

13.5.5 Proteases

13.5.6 Other enzymes

13.6 Conclusion
References

14. Effect of high-pressure technologies on enzymes used in nonfood processing applications
Michael Diehl, Min Jeong Kang, and Jose I. Reyes-De-Corcuera

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Theoretical considerations

14.2.1 Effect of pressure on folding

14.2.2 Effect of pressure on enzyme kinetics

14.3 Application of HHP to medical research, pharmaceuticals, and health

14.3.1 Medical research

14.3.2 Pharmaceuticals

14.3.3 Nutraceuticals

14.3.4 Allergen reduction

14.4 Effect of HHP on enzyme catalysis in organic solvents and ionic liquids

14.4.1 Effect of HHP on enzyme catalysis in organic solvents

14.4.2 Effect of HHP on enzyme catalysis in ionic liquids

14.5 Other effects of HHP on other nonfood enzymes

14.5.1 Effect of HHP on enantioselectivity

14.5.2 Enzymes from the deep sea

14.5.3 Other interesting studies

14.6 Conclusions
References

15. Future challenges of using high-pressure technologies on enzymes
Bruno Ricardo de Castro Leite Ju´nior and Alline Artigiani Lima Tribst

15.1 Introduction

15.2 High-pressure technologies applied in food focusing on enzyme activity

15.2.1 High-pressure processing on enzyme activity

15.2.2 HPP-assisted reaction to produce compounds of commercial interest

15.2.3 High-pressure homogenization on enzyme activity

15.3 Drawbacks, challenges, and opportunities

15.3.1 Economical aspects

15.3.2 Gaps of knowledge and challenges

15.4 Conclusion
References