Handbook of Biologically Active Peptides

Contributors

Preface to the 1st Edition

Preface to the 2nd Edition

Section I: Plant Peptides

Chapter 1. CLAVATA3

Discovery

Structure of the peptide

Distribution of the mRNA and peptide

Biological functions

Receptors and signaling cascades

References

Chapter 2. Defense Signal Peptides

Discovery

Systemin

HYPSYS

Plant Elicitor Peptides (Peps)

GMSUBPEP

GMPEP914/890

Inceptins

Conclusions

References

Chapter 3. DVL/RTFL

Discovery

Structure of the peptide

Distribution of the mRNA/peptide

Biological function

Receptors and signaling cascades

References

Chapter 4. EPF

Discovery

Structure of the Peptide

Distribution of the mRNA/PEPTIDE

References

Chapter 5. IDA/IDL

Discovery

Structure of the IDA and IDL Peptides

Distribution of the mRNA and Biological Function of the IDA and IDL Peptides

Receptors and Signaling Cascade of IDA

References

Chapter 6. LUREs

Discovery

Structure of the Peptide

Distribution of the mRNA/Peptide

Biological functions

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

References

Chapter 7. Phytosulfokine

Discovery and Structure of PSK

Biological Function of PSK In Vitro

Expression Pattern and In Vivo Function of PSK

Receptor for PSK and In Planta Function of PSK

PSY1, A Sulfated Glycopeptide Functionally Similar to PSK

References

Chapter 8. POLARIS

Discovery

Structure of the Precursor mRNA/Gene

Distribution of the mRNA

Processing

Biological Actions

References

Chapter 9. RALF Peptides

Discovery

Structure of RALF

Distribution of the mRNA/Peptide

Biological Functions

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

References

Chapter 10. Root Meristem Growth Factor

Discovery of RGF

Structure, Expression, and Biological Functions of RGF

Molecular Target of RGF Signaling

References

Chapter 11. ROTUNDIFOLIA4

Discovery

Structure of the Peptide

Distribution of the mRNA/Peptide

Biological Functions

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

References

Chapter 12. SCR

Discovery of SCR

Structure of the precursor mRNA gene

Distribution of the SCR mRNA and the basis of allelic dominance in heterozygotes

Processing of the SCR protein

The SCR receptor: the S-locus receptor kinase (SRK)

Structure of SCR

Biological actions of SCR and SI signaling

The SCR-like (SCRL) gene family in plants

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 13. Stomagen/EPFL9

Discovery

Structure of the Peptide

Distribution of the mRNA/Peptide

Biological Functions

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

References

Chapter 14. TDIF

Discovery

Structure of the peptide

Distribution of the mRNA/peptide

Biological functions

Receptors and signaling cascades

Acknowledgments

References

Section II: Bacterial/Antibiotic Peptides

Chapter 15. Cathelicidins

Discovery

Structure of the Precursor mRNA/Structural Gene

Distribution of Cathelicidins

Processing

Receptors

Information on Active and/or Solution Conformation

Biological Functions

Therapeutic Potential

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 16. Class II Non-Lantibiotic Bacteriocins

Background

Non-Lantibiotic Bacteriocins: Properties and Structural Features

Other Non-Lantibiotics but Modified Bacteriocins

Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 17. Colicins

Discovery and Classification

Colicin, Immunity, and Lysis Proteins

The Domain Concept

Crystal Structures of Colicins (Fig. 1B–E)

Crystal structures of Colicin–Receptor complexes (Fig. 2)

Mechanism of import across the outer membrane (Fig. 3)

Areas of research encompassed by colicin studies

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 18. Defensins

Discovery

Structure of Precursor mRNA and Gene

Distribution and Expression of the mRNA

Processing

Receptors

Active Conformation

Biological Actions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 19. Lantibiotics

Discovery

Structural lanA genes

Biosynthetic gene clusters

Biosynthesis of the ring structures

Processing

Receptors

Producer self-protection

Information on active and/or solution conformation

Biological activities

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 20. Microcins

Discovery and Classification

Genetic Systems and Biosynthesis

Immunity of Producing Bacteria to Microcins

Receptors and Biological Activities

Structure/Activity Relationships

Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 21. Nonribosomal Peptide Synthesis

Introduction

Monomer Diversity

Initiation of NRP Assembly

Elongation during NRP Assembly

Termination of NRP Assembly

References

Chapter 22. Peptaibols

Introduction

Characteristic Features of the Peptaibols

Biological Origins and Biosynthesis of Peptaibols

Peptaibol Structures

Functions and Activities of Peptaibols

Acknowledgments

References

Section III: Fungal Peptides

Chapter 23. Antifungal and Antibacterial Peptides of Fungal Origin

Introduction

References

Chapter 24. Fungal Peptides with Ribonuclease and Ribosome Inactivating Activities

Mushroom Ubiquitin-Like Peptides

Mushroom RNases

Fungal Ribonucleolytic Toxins

Mushroom Ribosome Inactivating Proteins (RIPs)

References

Chapter 25. Fungal Toxins

Introduction

Structural Features of the Peptidic Fungal Toxins

Biosynthesis of Peptidic Fungal Toxins

Proposed Usage of Fungal Toxins

Antidotes to Fungal Toxins

References

Chapter 26. Plant Antifungal Peptides

Discovery

Three-Dimensional Structures of Plant Antifungal Peptides

Proposed Mechanisms of Action of Plant Antifungal Peptides

Transgenic Plants Expressing Antifungal Peptides from Plants

Conclusions

References

Chapter 27. Polysaccaride Krestin (PSK) and Polysaccharopeptide PSP

Discovery

Strucutre and Chemical Compositions

Biological Acitvities

Other Biological Activities

Conclusions

References

Section IV: Invertebrate Peptides

Chapter 28. AKH/RPCH Peptides

Discovery

AKH Structure

AKH/RPCH Receptors and their Signaling

Biological Actions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 29. Allatostatins

Discovery

Structure of Allatostatin Precursors

Distribution of mRNA and Peptides

Peptide Processing

Allatostatin Receptors

Structure Activity and Active Conformations

Biological Actions

Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 30. Allatotropin

Isolation and Structure of Allatotropin

The Allatotropin Gene and its Expression

Biological Activity of Allatotropin

The Allatotropin Receptor

References

Chapter 31. B-Type Allatostatins and Sex Peptides

Discovery

Structure of the mRNA/Gene

Processing of the Precursor

Distribution of the mRNAS and Peptides

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

Biological Actions

References

Chapter 32. Crustacean Bioactive Peptides

Introduction

Androgenic Gland Hormone (AGH)/Insulin-Related Peptides

Allatostatins (See Chapter 29)

CHH-Superfamily

Corazonin

Crustacean Cardioactive Peptide (CCAP)

Diuretic Hormone 31

Enkephalins (See Chapter 219)

FMRFamide-Related Peptides (FaRPs) (See Chapter 35)

GAHKNYLRFamide

Kinins (See the Kinin Chapters in this and Other Sections of the Book)

Myosuppressin

Neuropeptide F-related Peptides

Orcokinin and Orcomyotropin

Pigment-Dispersing Hormone (PDH)

Proctolin

Pyrokinin

Red Pigment Concentrating Hormone (RPCH)

Sifamide

Sulfakinins

Tachykinin-Related Peptides

Conclusions and Perspectives

References

Chapter 33. Developmental Peptides: ETH, Corazonin, and PTTH

Ecdysis-Triggering Hormones

Corazonin

Prothoracicotropic Hormone (PTTH)

References

Chapter 34. Diuretic/Antidiuretic

Discovery

Structure of Precursor mRNAs and Genes

Distribution of mRNA and Peptides

Peptide Processing

Receptors

Structure–Activity and Active Conformation

Biological Actions

Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 35. FMRFamide-Like Peptides (FLPs)

Discovery

Structure of the mRNA/Gene

Processing of the Precursor

Distribution of mRNA/Peptide

Receptors and Signaling Cascade

Biological Actions

References

Chapter 36. Free-Living Nematodes

Introduction

FMRFamide-Like Peptides (FLPS)

Neuropeptide-Like Peptides (NLPs)

Insulins (INSs)

Antimicrobial Peptides

Summary

References

Chapter 37. FXPRLamide (Pyrokinin/PBAN) Family

Introduction

Discovery of the PK/PBAN Family of Peptides: Historical Perspective

Structure of the mRNA/Gene

Processing of the Precursor

Distribution of the Peptide/mRNA

Receptors and Signaling Cascade

Signaling Cascade

Biological Actions

The PK/PBAN Peptides Family as Potential Targets for Pest Management

Summary and Future Prospects

References

Chapter 38. Insulin-Like Peptides

Introduction

Characterization of Insect and Invertebrate ILPs

Expression, Processing and Secretion of ILPs

Insulin Signaling

Regulatory Roles of Insulin-Like Peptides

Growth and Development

Ecdysteroid Hormone Production

Metabolism

Reproduction

Diapause

Behavior

Immunity

Aging

Conclusions

References

Chapter 39. Molluscan Bioactive Peptides

Introduction

FMRFAMIDE, FMRFAMIDE-Related Peptides (FARPs)

Insulin-Related Peptides and NPY

Peptides and Feeding Behavior

Peptides and Renal Function

Tachykinin

Peptides and Reproduction

APGWAMIDE

GnRH and Related Peptides

VP/OP

References

Chapter 40. Parasitic Nematode Peptides

Introduction

FMRFAMIDE-like Peptides (FLPS)

Biological Actions of FLPs

Neuropeptide-Like Peptides (NLPS)

Insulin-Like Peptides (INSS)

References

Chapter 41. Pigment Dispersing Factor

Discovery

Structure of the mRNA/Gene

Processing of the Precursor

Distribution of the mRNA/Peptide

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

Biological Actions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 42. Proctolin

Discovery

Structure of the MRNA/Gene

Processing of the Precursor

Distribution of MRNA/Peptide

Receptors and Signaling Cascade

Biological Actions

References

Chapter 43. Sulfakinins

Discovery

Structure of the mRNA/Gene

Processing

Tissue Distribution

Receptors

Biological Actions

References

Chapter 44. Tachykinin Peptides

Discovery

Structure of Precursor mRNAS and Genes

Distribution of mRNA and Peptides

Peptide Processing

Receptors of TKRPs

Structure Activity and Active Conformation

Biological Actions

Concluding Remarks

References

Section V: Amphibian/Skin Peptides

Chapter 45. Bradykinin Peptides

Discovery and Distribution

Biosynthesis of Bradykinin and Related Peptides

Molecular Variants of BK

Biological Activities

References

Chapter 46. Bombesin Peptides

Introduction

Amphibian Bombesins

Amphibian Phyllolitorins

Ranatensin-Like Peptides

Gastrin-Releasing Peptide

Phylogenetic Considerations and Implications for Additional Mammalian Bombesin-Like Peptides

References

Chapter 47. Bombinins

Bombinins: General Features

Solution Structure

The Gene Structure of BLPs and Bombinins H

Biological Properties (Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, and Cytolytic Activities)

Bombinins H: Mechanism of Action of Antimicrobial Activity

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 48. Caeruleins

Introduction

The Caerulein Peptides

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 49. Chromogranins/Secretogranins

Discovery

Structure and Processing of the Precursors

Distribution and Regulation of the mRNAs

Biological Actions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 50. Dermaseptins

The Dermaseptin Superfamily: A Library of Structurally and Functionally Disparate Peptides Originating from a Single Gene Family

The Dermaseptin Superfamily: Gene Duplication, Focal Hypermutation, and Diversifying Selection

Antimicrobial Activities of the Preprodermaseptin-Derived Peptides from South American Hylidae Frogs

Mechanisms of Microbicidal Activity

The Dermaseptins: Multifunctional Host Defense Peptides

References

Chapter 51. Insulin-Releasing Peptides

Introduction

Insulinotropic Peptides from Ranidae

Insulinotropic Peptides from Hylidae

Insulinotropic Peptides from Bombinatoridae

Insulinotropic Peptides from Leptodactylidae

Insulinotropic Peptides from Dicroglossidae

Insulinotropic Peptides from Pipidae

Analogs with Increased Insulin-Releasing Activity

Conclusions

References

Chapter 52. Neurohypophysial Peptides

Discovery

Distribution of AVT and MT

Receptor Structure and Distribution

Major Biological Actions of AVT and MT

Structure and Function of Hydrins

References

Chapter 53. Opioid and Bv8 Peptides

Opioid Peptides

Bv8/Prokineticin Family (Swiss-Prot: Q9PW66)

References

Chapter 54. Sodefrin and Related Pheromones

Discovery

Structure of the Precursor mRNA/Gene

Distribution of the mRNA

Processing of the Precursors

Receptors

Structure–Activity Relationships

Biological Actions

Physiological Implications

References

Chapter 55. Tachykinins

Discovery

Structure of the Precursor mRNA/Gene

Processing of the Precursor

Distribution

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

Actions in Amphibians

Actions of Amphibian TKs in their Species of Origin

Actions in Mammals

Pathological Implications

References

Chapter 56. Temporins

Discovery and Distribution

Biosynthesis

Molecular Heterogeneity

Biophysical Properties and Interaction with Membranes

Biological Activities

Potential Clinical and Commercial Applications

Conclusions

References

Section VI: Venom Peptides

Chapter 57. Animal Toxins

Animal Toxins as Candidate Drugs

Animal Toxins in Biotechnological Applications

Maurocalcine, an Animal Toxin that Targets an Intracellular Receptor

Maurocalcine is a Competitive Cell-Penetrating Peptide

The Pharmacological Activity of Maurocalcine is Easy to Neutralize

Maurocalcine Produces Cell Delivery into the Cytoplasm

Maurocalcine has an Excellent Cell Entry/Toxicity Ratio

Maurocalcine is a Stable CPP Vector in Vivo

Maurocalcine Preferentially Targets Some Cell Types and Organs in Vivo

Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 58. Hymenoptera Insect Peptides

Introduction

Peptides from the Venoms of Social Hymenoptera

Peptide Toxins from Honey Bee Venom

Peptide Toxins from Bumblebee Venoms

Peptide Toxins from Social Wasp Venoms

Peptides from Ant Venoms

Pathophysiology of Hymenopteran Peptide Toxins

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 59. Scorpion Peptides

Introduction

Mining on Scorpion Venoms

Documented Molecular Diversity

Structural and Functional Types

Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 60. Sea Anemone Peptides

Introduction

Sea Anemone Genome

Other Genomics Analyses

New Peptides from Anemones

Structures

Therapeutic Applications

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 61. Snail Peptides

Biodiversity of Venomous Molluscs and Discovery of Their Venom Peptides

Discovery of Conotoxins

Precursor Structure, Expression, and Processing: Conotoxin Superfamilies

Definition of Conotoxin Families, Receptor Targets, and Structures

Biological Mechanisms: Therapeutic Applications

Overview of Peptides from Other Venomous Marine Snails

Perspectives

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 62. Snake Peptides

Introduction

Three-Finger Toxins

Protease Inhibitor Homologs

Crotamine-Like Myotoxins

Sarafotoxins

CRISP Family Toxins

Natriuretic Peptides

Disintegrins

C-Type Lectins and Lectin-Like Proteins

Waglerins

Bradykinin-potentiating peptides

AVIT peptides

Cystatins

Cathelicidins

Waprins

Miscellaneous Peptides

References

Chapter 63. Spider Peptides

Introduction

Methodological Approaches in the Isolation of Spider Venom Peptides

Structure of the Precursor Spider Venom Peptide and PostTranslational Processing

Linear Peptides

Disulfide-Rich Peptides

Conclusions and Future Directions

References

Chapter 64. Targets and Therapeutic Properties

Cardiovascular Diseases

Infection, Immunity, and Oncology

Nervous System

Metabolic and Other Diseases

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 65. Worm Peptides

Introduction

Nemertine Neurotoxins

Nemertine Peptide Cytolysins

Annelid (Glycera) Neurotoxin

Annelid Antibacterial Peptide Toxins

Nematode and Platyhelminth Peptide Cytolysins

Concluding Comments

References

Section VII: Cancer/Anticancer Peptides

Chapter 66. Adrenomedullin

Introduction

Anatomical Sources of AM

Regulatory Pathway that Stimulate AM Expression

AM Induced Cell Growth

AM-Mediated Antiapoptosis

AM-Regulated Cell Migration/Invasion

AM Effects on the Immune Response

AM Stimulates Angiogenesis and Lymphangiogenesis

AM-Targeted Therapies for Cancer

AM, Obesity, Diabetes, and Cancer— Axial Link

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 67. Angiotensin II/Angiotensin-(1–7)

Introduction

Detection of Ang II in Tumor Tissue and Cancer Cell Lines

Ang II Stimulates Cancer Cell Proliferation

Ang II Promotes Tumor Angiogenesis

Effects of Ang II on the Tumor Microenvironment

Ang II Stimulates Cancer Cell Migration and Invasion

Ang II Induced Cancer Cell Signaling

Ang-(1–7) Attenuates Tumor Growth

Ang-(1–7) Inhibits Tumor Angiogenesis

Effects of Ang-(1–7) on the Tumor Microenvironment

Ang-(1–7) Clinical Trials

Conclusions

References

Chapter 68. Apelin

Introduction

Role of Apelin in Cancer

Conclusions

References

Chapter 69. Bombesin Peptides

Introduction

Bn-Related Peptides (GRP, NMB)

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 70. Endothelin-1

Endothelin-1

ET-1 Associated Signal Transduction Pathways

ET-1 Expression in Cancer

Endothelin Receptor Expression in Cancer

ET-1 as a Mitogen

ET-1 and Apoptosis

ET-1 and Angiogenesis

ET-1 and Tumor Progression/Metastases

Endothelin Antagonism in vivo

Clinical Trials

References

Chapter 71. Gastrin

Introduction

Expression of Gastrins in Normal Tissue

The Gastrin Receptor(s)

Expression of Gastrin in Tumors

Gastrin as a Tumor Growth Factor

Conclusions

References

Chapter 72. Leptin/Adiponectin

Introduction

Leptin and Cancer

Clinical Evidence of Leptin Related to Cancer

In Vitro Results of Leptin as a Mitogenic Factor

Systemic Regulation of Leptin on Cancer

In Vivo Results of Leptin and Cancer

Adiponectin and Cancer

Clinical Evidence of Adiponectin Related to Cancer

Potential Mechanisms of Adiponectin as a Protective Factor of Cancer

In Vivo Results of Adiponectin and Cancer

Cancer-Related Polymorphisms of Adiponectin and AdipoR1 Genes

Interplay between Leptin and Adiponectin

Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 73. LHRH Analogs

Introduction

Receptors for LHRH-I and LHRH-II

Signaling mechanisms from LHRH receptors

Development of Analogs of LHRH

Agonistic Analogs of LHRH-I

Mechanism of Biological Action of LHRH and its Agonists

Applications of Agonists of LHRH-I

Antagonists of LHRH

Targeted Cytotoxic Analogs of LHRH

Mechanism of Action of Cytotoxic LHRH Analogs

Receptors for LHRH on Human Tumors

Antitumor effects of Agonists and Antagonists of LHRH—Experimental and Clinical Findings

Applications of Cytotoxic LHRH Analogs

Clinical trials with AN-152 (AEZS-108) in Men with Prostate Cancer

Breast Cancer

Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 74. Orexins (Hypocretins)

Introduction

Discovery

Structure of the mRNA/Gene

Processing of the Precursor

Distribution of the mRNA/Peptide

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

Biological Actions within the Gastrointestinal Tract and the Pancreas

Pathophysiological Implications

Conclusions and Perspectives

References

Chapter 75. Somatostatin/NPY

Introduction

Somatostatin

NPY

References

Chapter 76. VIP/PACAP Receptors

Introduction

VPAC1-R

PAC1-R

Second Messengers

Protein Phosphorylation

Proliferation

Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Section VIII: Vaccine Peptides

Chapter 77. Antiadhesin Peptide-Based Vaccines for Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Significance and Background

Synthetic Consensus Sequence Peptide-Based Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Vaccines

Conclusions

References

Chapter 78. Lipo-Peptides/Saccharides for Peptide Vaccine Delivery

Introduction

Subunit Vaccines

Lipidation

Glycolipopeptides

Conclusions

References

Chapter 79. Novel Tumor Derived Peptides in Vaccines

Introduction

Antigen Processing and Its Role in Peptide-Based Vaccinology

Mass Spectrometry and the Identification of T-cell Epitopes

Synthetic Peptides as Vaccines

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 80. Peptide Vaccine for Alzheimer’s Disease

Introduction

In vitro modulation of β-amyloid formation

EFRH Phage Elicits Antibodies Against β-Amyloid Peptide

Peptides as Vaccines for the Prevention and/or Reduction of Amyloid Plaques in AD Transgenic Mice

Active Immunization of hAPP Transgenic Mice with EFRH Phage as Peptide Vaccine

Future Outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 81. Peptide Vaccines for Myeloid Leukemias

Introduction

Leukemia-Associated Antigens (LAAs)

Vaccination

Why Peptides?

BCR-ABL Peptide Vaccine

WT1 Peptide Vaccine

PR1 Peptide Vaccine

Combined PR1 and WT1 Peptide Vaccines

RHAMM Peptide Vaccine

Implications and Future Perspectives

References

Chapter 82. Peptide Vaccines for Otitis Media

Disease Target

Background of Available Therapies

Why Peptides?

Our Contributions to the Area

Future Outlook

References

Chapter 83. Therapeutic Peptides Targeting HER-2/neu and VEGF Signaling Pathways in Breast Cancer

Peptides as Therapeutic Candidates

HER-2 Signaling Pathways, Cancer, and Strategy for the Design of HER-2 Peptide Mimic

VEGF, Cancer, and the Design of VEGF Peptide Inhibitor

Additive/Synergistic Effects of Targeting Both HER-2 and VEGF Pathways in Cancer

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 84. Use of Positional Scanning Libraries to Identify Immunologically Relevant Peptides

Definition of Mixture-Based Libraries

Use of Positional Scanning Libraries to Determine Antibody Specificity

Use of Positional Scanning Libraries for T Cell Epitope Mapping

Use of Positional Scanning Libraries to Identify MHC-Binding Motifs

Conclusions

References

Section IX: Immune/Inflammatory Peptides

Chapter 85. Anaphylatoxins

Historical Perspective and Scope

Precursor mRNA/Gene Structure, Expression, and Regulation of Anaphylatoxins

Generation of C3A and C5A Anaphylatoxins

Structure of Anaphylatoxins

Receptors for Anaphylatoxins

Biological Actions of Anaphylatoxins

Pathophysiological Implications of Anaphylatoxins

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 86. Annexin-A1 Peptide Ac2–26

Discovery

Scope of this Chapter

Discovery of Importance of the N-Terminal Peptide

The Structure of Anx-A1 and Acetyl 2–26

Receptors for Anx-A1 and N-Acetyl 2–26

Biological Properties of the Acetyl-26 Peptide

Structure–Activity Relationships

Summary

References

Chapter 87. Immunoregulatory Neuropeptides

Introduction

Anti-inflammatory Neuropeptides that Regulate the Autoimmune Response

Induction of Immune Tolerance by Generating Regulatory T-Cells

Redundant and Pleiotropic Effects on Immune Homeostasis: A Matter of Receptor Specificity and Signaling

A healthy Immune System Requires a Physiologically Functional Neuropeptide System

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 88. Chemerin

Discovery

Structure of the mRNA/Gene

Processing of the Precursor

Distribution of the mRNA/Peptide

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

Biological Actions

Pathophysiological Implications

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 89. Chemokines

Organization of Chemokines

Structure of Chemokines

Chemokine Receptors

Biology of Chemokines

Chemokines in Host Defense

Chemokines in Inflammatory Diseases

Chemokines as Antimicrobial Peptides

References

Chapter 90. DP IV/CD26 Effector Peptides

Introduction

DP IV/CD26 in the Immune System

DP IV Effector Peptides

Primary DP IV Effector Peptides

Secondary Immunorelevant DP IV peptide substrates

Peptide Inhibitors of DP IV

References

Chapter 91. FPR Ligands

Introduction

Formyl Peptide Receptors (FPRs)

FPR Agonists

Nonpeptides

FPR Antagonists

Perspectives

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 92. Neuroimmune Peptides

Introduction

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 93. Peptide Loading of MHC

Introduction

The MHC Locus

MHC-Class I

MHC-Class II

Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 94. Peptide Recognition by T Cells

Introduction

Major Histocompatibility Complex Class I and Class II Molecules

Characteristics of Peptides Presented by MHC-Class I

Characteristics of Peptides Presented by MHC-Class II

Biological Roles of MHC-Bound Peptides

Autoimmune Diseases

Therapeutic Use of Peptides

Conclusions

References

Chapter 95. RGD Peptides

Discovery of The Antiadhesive RGD Peptides

RGD Peptides in Platelet Aggregation

Biologically Active Conformation of RGD Peptides

RGD Peptides in Immunological Phenomena

RGD Peptides and Pathogen Invasions

RGD Peptides in Other Pathological Phenomena

Perspectives

References

Section X: Brain Peptides

Chapter 96. Apelin

Discovery

Structure of the mRNA/Gene

Processing of the Precursor

Distribution of the mRNA/Peptide

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

Biological Actions Within the Brain and Pituitary Gland

Peripheral Cardiovascular Actions

Pathophysiological Implications

References

Chapter 97. BNP/CNP

Discovery

Structure of the mRNA/Gene

Processing of the Precursor

Distribution of the mRNA/Peptide

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

Biological Actions Within the Brain and Pituitary

Pathophysiological Implications

References

Chapter 98. CART

Discovery

Structure of the CART Precursor mRNA and CART Gene

Processing of CART Peptides

Distribution of CART mRNA and Peptides

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

Biological Actions of CART Peptides within the Brain and Pituitary

Pathophysiological Implications

References

Chapter 99. CCK

Structure of the Precursor mRNA/Gene

Distribution of CCK

Processing of the Precursor (see Peptide Biosynthesis/Processing section of this book)

References

Chapter 100. CGRP/Adrenomedullin

Discovery

Structure of the Precursor mRNA/Gene

Distribution of the mRNA/Peptide

Processing of the Precursor

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

Peptide Conformation

Biological Actions within the Brain

Pathophysiological Implications

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 101. CRH Family

Discovery

Precursor Gene and cDNA Structure

Distribution and Expression of mRNA

Processing of Preprohormone

Receptors and Binding Proteins

Biological Actions in the Central Nervous System

Pathophysiological Implications

References

Chapter 102. Endozepines

Discovery

Structure of DBI mRNA/Gene

Processing of the DBI Precursor

Distribution of DBI mRNA and Endozepine Immunoreactivity

Control of Biosynthesis and Release of Endozepines

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

Information on Solution Conformation of Endozepines

Biological Actions of Endozepines within the Brain

Pathophysiological Implications of Endozepines

References

Chapter 103. Galanin and GALP

Discovery

Structure of the mRNA/Gene

Processing of the Peptide Precursor

Distribution of the mRNA/Peptide

Receptors and Signaling Cascades

Biological Actions within the Brain and Pituitary

Pathophysiological Implications

References

Chapter 104. Ghrelin

Discovery

Structure of the Ghrelin Gene, mRNA, and Precursor Protein

Distribution of Ghrelin in the Central Nervous System

Processing of the Ghrelin Precursor

Ghrelin Receptor in the Brain

Biological Actions of Ghrelin Within the Brain

References

Chapter 105. GHRH

Discovery

Structure of the GHRH mRNA/GENE

Processing of the GHRH Precursor

Distribution of the GHRH mRNA/Peptide